Degung Santikarma
Sejak zaman kolonial, Bali sudah menarik perhatian antropolog dunia. Bagi para mahasiswa jurusan ini Bali menjadi semacam mata pelajaran wajib, dan ia menggugah minat para antropolog, mungkin lebih dari daerah lain di muka bumi ini. Kebudayaan Bali adalah “teks suci” yang harus dilalui dalam proses inisiasi bagi para “calon” antropolog dimana pun mereka belajar. Dan, hampir tak ada aspek kehidupan orang Bali yang lepas dari sorotan para antropolog dunia. Mulai dari sistem kekerabatan yang rumit, mobilitas ritual yang tak kenal henti, struktur makna bahasa, sampai kosmologi berkesenian dan kerja yang beritme alam. Sampai sekarang, di Bali ada musim khusus, yaitu ‘musim antropologi’. Jika musim ini tiba, tingkat hunian griya (rumah brahmana), puri (rumah ksatria), dan rumah bendesa adat (pimpinan desa adat) pun melambung. Isu kerusuhan sepertinya lewat begitu saja. Tidak seperti turis biasa yang kedatangannya sangat dipengaruhi oleh gejolak politik di Jakarta, Maluku, Aceh, atau Timor Lorosae. Mengapa Bali menarik perhatian begitu banyak antropolog?
Jawaban terhadap persoalan ini memang bervariasi dari zaman ke zaman. Pada zaman kolonial Bali dilihat sebagai daerah Hindu yang masih tetap bertahan setelah Islamisasi yang terjadi begitu gencar bermula di Jawa. Bagi pandangan yang kental nuansa orientalisme, masuknya Islam di Jawa dianggap sebagai kehancuran kejayaan Hindu. Dan ini berarti punahnya sebuah peradaban.
Bali dalam pandangan ini kemudian dianggap sebagai “museum hidup” untuk melihat praktek Hindu yang sudah mencapai titik nadir kepunahan di Jawa. Bali bagi mereka menawarkan perbedaan eksotik yang selalu menjadi bahan pokok para antropolog. Ada sistem hirarki kasta dan kerajaan yang tak bisa ditemui lagi di daerah jajahan lain seperti Jawa dan Sumatra. Ada perang status antar raja yang tak pernah berakhir, pelaksanaan hukum adat yang terus bertahan seperti praktek bakar janda, dan banyak lagi.
live cycle
Kamis, 24 Juni 2010
Rabu, 23 Juni 2010
From Food Crop to Fuel Crop: Discourse of Jatropha Crop Cultivation as Biofuel sources in Indonesia
Discussion Paper for the RCSD International Conference “Revisiting Agrarian Transformations in Southeast Asia: Empirical, Theoretical and Applied Perspectives”, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 13-15 May 2010
GUNAWAN
Abstract
Fossil fuel scarcity encourages alternative energy production based on renewable sources, especially biofuel. Jatropha is one of potential sources of biofuel, beside palm oil, sugar cane, and cassava. Production of biofuel based on jatropha is technically applicable in Indonesia since its land characteristic. But in reality, making this plant as a source for biofuel is not a simple thing, especially for social conditions in Indonesia. One critical social problem is on land utilization for jatropha plantation that will impact on land management and labor allocation.
Land management relates with process of switching land utilization from food crop to jatropha crop. This condition triggers labor allocation problem since the difference of production system between food and jatropha production. Being introduced as a highly potential source of alternative energy, jatropha is expected as a plant that provides a good profit for farmers. Farmers are planting and hoping high revenue from cultivating the Jatropha . This situation encourages the agricultural transition that leads socio-economic impact on society. After harvesting, farmers have to face the reality that jatropha seeds' price is lower than food commodity. This experience decreases farmers' motivation on jatropha plantation.
According to this trade-off problem between enthusiasms of finding new source of alternative energy and socio-economic agricultural transition problem, this research is conducted to indentify community readiness and explore social consequences of jatropha crop as a new commodity.
Background
Alternative fuel sources other than fossil fuels have been discussing intensively in Indonesia since 2005. It was triggered by the increasing in the total imports reaching 300,000 barrels per day or as much as USD 21 million per day on the price of USD 70 per barrel. This condition pressures the government to raise the domestic fuel price for transportation which reaches around 100% for diesel from 2,100 rupiahs to 4,300 rupiahs per liter on October 1, 2005.
Along with the rising of oil price in the world market in 2005, Jatropha Curcas Linn had initially been discussed by many people in the government, non-government organization and both national and international public. It was expected to be the latest energy source for biofuel.
In Indonesia, the effort to produce alternative energy of Jatropha oil is not only to decrease the dependency on fossil fuel, but also to overcome poverty. There was a declaration of national movement on poverty tackling and fuel crisis through Jatropha Curcas plantation on October 2005 as the National Strategy on Poverty Tackling. The declaration was signed by Coordinating Minister of People’s Welfare, State Minister of National Development Planning/Chairman of National Development Planning Agency, Minister of Social Affairs, Minister of Home Affairs, Minister of Agriculture, Minister of Public Works, State Minister for Cooperatives and Small and Medium Enterprises, State Minister for Research and Technology, etc. In the following year, Presidential Instruction (Inpres) No. 1/2006 was issued by the government for the provision and utilization of biofuel in Indonesia as an alternative energy source. The instruction is directed to 13 ministries , governors, regents/mayors to accelerate provision and utilization of biofuel as an alternative energy source. Another government effort to encourage the rising of biofuel production is by establishing a program of Energy Self-Sufficiency Village (Desa Mandiri Energi). This program was declared by the President of the Republic of Indonesia, Susilo Bambang Yudoyono, on February 2007 at Tanjungharjo Village, Ngaringan, Purwodadi, Central Java, along with officially announcement of the establishment of a biofuel factory, PT. ENHIL. Energy Self-Sufficiency Village is an intended program to enable villages in fulfilling their own need of energy to decrease the dependency on fossil fuel. Besides, it is also intended to provide job opportunity and overcome poverty in underdeveloping villages.
The government expects the plantation of Jatropha Curcas as an alternative of biofuel source provision after palm oil. It is not only in the production capacity, but also in its capability to absorb manpower massively. Ten million hectares of Jatropha Curcas plantation is targeted to absorb 100,000 skilled manpower and 10 million non-skilled manpower in 2009 . Based on the above expectation, thus, the production of Jatropha oil as the source of biofuel must be done in a big production scale. The government provides an opportunity for companies to invest in jatropha plantations as an alternative energy source. The company’s involvement in producing Jatropha oil starts on the initial planning of Jatropha Curcas cultivation program. Some of the companies are the partners of the government such as PT. Rajawali Putra Nusantara, Bahana Artha Ventura, PT. Rekayasa Industri, PT. Indosement Tunggal Prakarsa, Others are the partners of Bogor Agricultural University such as PT. Titan, and PT. AGB energy. There are also companies from Japan, Korea, and China.
In effort to produce biofuel, government and companies has been introducing jatropha crop to the farmer. The companies have been making an investment by planting jatropha in several areas such as Java, East Nusa Tenggara, and Papua in cooperation with local government and community. There are some models of cooperation between companies and the community. Initially, the companies asked to local governments to provide land to be used for seedling jatropha. The companies with local government organized the farmer to provided land for planting jatropha on private land or on government land. The jatropha seed was supplied by company but not for free, farmers had to buy and then received technical assistance in planting the jatropha. Companies promised to provided subsidies and credit to the farmer who want to plant the jatropha. In other side, the companies informed that jatropha crop is a simple plantation by low maintenance, low input, suitable for marginal land without fertilizer, and profitable because of the high price of its seed. Moreover, the companies promised to buy jatropha fruits in high price.
According to this information, farmers were very enthusiastic to participate on planting jatropha initially. They hoped to get credit or subsidies and economic benefit from cultivating jatropha crops. In some area, land that previously used for food crops was switching to jatropha crop because they hoped for reaching a high economic benefit. In some area, farmers were switching their land which is previously planted with corn and cassava. Farmers were not worried about where they will sell the jatropha kernel, because of the company’s promise.
After planting, the reality was not as they were expected. When jatropha produce fruits, farmers faced difficulties to sell the kernel. The company which previously were willing to storage and buy higher, unfortunately buy this production lower than its production cost. Moreover, the provided price was not stabil enough. In other case, the farmer could not sell the harvest because the company was closed. According to this condition, in some area, at Central Java jatropha crop cultivation was abandoned by the farmer. They were cutting down the crop and switching back the land for food crop cultivation (cassava and corn). Actually, cultivating the jatropha crop is not simple, because jatropha cultivation requires a lot of labor input in its management, starting from land clearing, planting, until harvesting. Jatropha seeds can not be harvested simultaneously. Farmers need more labor for harvesting and need additional manpower and labor costs.
Even though the government has formally established various policies to support biofuel production but the result is not yet seen. In current condition, the discoursement of biofuel production based on jatropha is beyond its fact. Media are often reporting about the establishment of biofuel companies or new locations for a big scale of jatropha plantations with the expectation of capacity production and manpower utilization. The news are optimistically impressed that the companies will run well to produce biofuel, but in fact do not match with the expectation. Often the company had close and leave the farmers when farmers began to produce jatropha seeds. Finally, the farmers do not know where to sell their product. Jatropha cultivation programmed by the companies show that they just sell the seeds to farmers while after growing, the companies run away.
This condition are experienced by the community at Ngaringan, Purwodadi, Central Java. Jatropha planting program in cooperation with government (the local government and the forest state company), community, and company is far from its expectation at the moment. The people who were formerly enthusiastic to plant Jatropha Curcas is apathetic now. The plants that has been planted are not well taken care of and just abandoned because of the imbalance in its seeds production cost and maintenance. The company which was previously expected to raise the people’s income is not running now. Finally, the plant is abandoned now; some farmers even cut it through and replace it with dry season crops.
Problems in Biofuel Production based on Jatropha Crop Cultivation
According to the condition that already been described, biofuel production based on jatropha crop is not well managed. Technically jatropha oil can be used for fuel as well as fossil fuel. But, in reality, producing jatropha oil in vast scale is not easy.
Currently, farmers still have orientation to plant food crops. The emergence of new types of commodity crops will cause social problems especially in its relation to knowledge production system and management of land and labor. Based on social-economic perspective, there are many problems in producing jatropha oil as biofuel; 1. How does the people’s readiness in producing biofuel; 2. How does manpower relationship between community and company in producing the biofuel?; 3. How does the social economy relationship built by community in the Jatropha oil production system?
Model of Land and Labor Management in Plantation
In Indonesia, the Jatropha oil for fuel source has been known in a long time period, especially during the Japanese occupation. As a new commodity crop, jatropha became a big discourse in 2005 but in current condition so far jatropha production has not produced any significant result. Before introducing jatropha, biofuel sources can be produced from sugar cane and Crude Palm Oil (CPO). Sugar cane produced ethanol, as byproduct of sugar.Palm oil was converted for biodiesel.. But both crops were cultivated as food crops rather than fuel crop. Recently, converting CPO to biodisel do not give economic benefit to companies because its price is higher than fossil fuel.
Meanwhile, jatropha, as an expected source of biofuel, is not strongly managed yet. The crop production system has not accommodated labor mobilization and land tenure system. Regarding this condition, the system is expected to adopt a sugar cane and palm oil as an established management. Several working patterns have been applied in the production system in sugar cane and palm oil to manage the relation between the labor, manufacturing company, and the land owner.
Sugar cane plantation systems in the Indonesia’s new order were known as Tebu Rakyat Intensifikasi-TRI (People's Sugar Cane Intensification) and Tebu Rakyar Bebas-TRB (People's Free Sugar Cane) . In the TRI system, the sugar cane company cooperated with the government to set up plantation pattern for the working fields belonged to the people and special village lands. Working fields belonged to the people were taking turn obliged to plant sugar cane with certain pattern. Sugar Cane Company provided incentive in the form of loan to farmers for the field processing, started from storaging into harvesting. The farmers were categorized into several groups based on the planting location block. The sugar cane produced was bought by the company. The loan taken by the farmers would be calculated on the harvesting time. Farmers could not refuse to plant the sugar cane in this system due to the authoritarian of a new Order regime. As the reformation of this order, this model was not longer applied in Indonesia. Facts show that there were a lot of funds corruptions in this system which was used to fund the production itself. Farmers lost out during harvesting due to the imbalance result compared with other plants which was caused by the factory in transparency in counting harvested sugar cane and its results after processing.
In TRB system, the farmers were independently planting sugar cane in their field and depositing the products to the factory to be processed. In this system, the factory was not interfering the process of planting conducted by the farmers. The farmers were free to plant sugar cane in their field and sell the products to the factory. Even so in the TRB system, since the company had full power to determine the price, farmers were often losing out due to low sugar cane price during harvesting so they could not cover up the production cost.
There are several working relation models for the manpower and company in palm oil plantation. First, the plantation is fully under the company. The company has several areas to plant and involves the manpower in the production system starting from field cleaning, planting, maintaining, harvesting, and processing. With this system, the manpower will get fees according to the status which is classified as full time, part time, and daily. Manpower does not assure any risks of losing that may happen.
Second, it is with the system of Nucleus Estate Smallholder or known as Perkebunan Inti Rakyat. In this system, there is contract farming which forms close relation between the company as the nucleus and manpower as the plasma. The nucleus obliges to provide the field, plant, input and production tools, technical guidance, and credit access, obliges to build physical facilities and accommodate the products. The plasma which is consisted of manpower/common people has certain requirements. The plasma obliges to process and maintain the plantation as well as deposit the products to the nucleus/factory. In several cases, the company can not maintain stable price so that it is the farmers who lose out.
Third, the manpower processes and maintains their fields independently and then sells the products to the company/factory with free plantation system. They assure all production costs and losing risks that may happen, especially due to the unstable market price.
Based on the relation patterns of production system to the available commodity, thus, the Jatropha Curcas commodity as the source of biofuel will lead to various social consequences. Therefore, it is necessary to identify alternative manpower relations in the Jatropha biofuel production system.
GUNAWAN
Abstract
Fossil fuel scarcity encourages alternative energy production based on renewable sources, especially biofuel. Jatropha is one of potential sources of biofuel, beside palm oil, sugar cane, and cassava. Production of biofuel based on jatropha is technically applicable in Indonesia since its land characteristic. But in reality, making this plant as a source for biofuel is not a simple thing, especially for social conditions in Indonesia. One critical social problem is on land utilization for jatropha plantation that will impact on land management and labor allocation.
Land management relates with process of switching land utilization from food crop to jatropha crop. This condition triggers labor allocation problem since the difference of production system between food and jatropha production. Being introduced as a highly potential source of alternative energy, jatropha is expected as a plant that provides a good profit for farmers. Farmers are planting and hoping high revenue from cultivating the Jatropha . This situation encourages the agricultural transition that leads socio-economic impact on society. After harvesting, farmers have to face the reality that jatropha seeds' price is lower than food commodity. This experience decreases farmers' motivation on jatropha plantation.
According to this trade-off problem between enthusiasms of finding new source of alternative energy and socio-economic agricultural transition problem, this research is conducted to indentify community readiness and explore social consequences of jatropha crop as a new commodity.
Background
Alternative fuel sources other than fossil fuels have been discussing intensively in Indonesia since 2005. It was triggered by the increasing in the total imports reaching 300,000 barrels per day or as much as USD 21 million per day on the price of USD 70 per barrel. This condition pressures the government to raise the domestic fuel price for transportation which reaches around 100% for diesel from 2,100 rupiahs to 4,300 rupiahs per liter on October 1, 2005.
Along with the rising of oil price in the world market in 2005, Jatropha Curcas Linn had initially been discussed by many people in the government, non-government organization and both national and international public. It was expected to be the latest energy source for biofuel.
In Indonesia, the effort to produce alternative energy of Jatropha oil is not only to decrease the dependency on fossil fuel, but also to overcome poverty. There was a declaration of national movement on poverty tackling and fuel crisis through Jatropha Curcas plantation on October 2005 as the National Strategy on Poverty Tackling. The declaration was signed by Coordinating Minister of People’s Welfare, State Minister of National Development Planning/Chairman of National Development Planning Agency, Minister of Social Affairs, Minister of Home Affairs, Minister of Agriculture, Minister of Public Works, State Minister for Cooperatives and Small and Medium Enterprises, State Minister for Research and Technology, etc. In the following year, Presidential Instruction (Inpres) No. 1/2006 was issued by the government for the provision and utilization of biofuel in Indonesia as an alternative energy source. The instruction is directed to 13 ministries , governors, regents/mayors to accelerate provision and utilization of biofuel as an alternative energy source. Another government effort to encourage the rising of biofuel production is by establishing a program of Energy Self-Sufficiency Village (Desa Mandiri Energi). This program was declared by the President of the Republic of Indonesia, Susilo Bambang Yudoyono, on February 2007 at Tanjungharjo Village, Ngaringan, Purwodadi, Central Java, along with officially announcement of the establishment of a biofuel factory, PT. ENHIL. Energy Self-Sufficiency Village is an intended program to enable villages in fulfilling their own need of energy to decrease the dependency on fossil fuel. Besides, it is also intended to provide job opportunity and overcome poverty in underdeveloping villages.
The government expects the plantation of Jatropha Curcas as an alternative of biofuel source provision after palm oil. It is not only in the production capacity, but also in its capability to absorb manpower massively. Ten million hectares of Jatropha Curcas plantation is targeted to absorb 100,000 skilled manpower and 10 million non-skilled manpower in 2009 . Based on the above expectation, thus, the production of Jatropha oil as the source of biofuel must be done in a big production scale. The government provides an opportunity for companies to invest in jatropha plantations as an alternative energy source. The company’s involvement in producing Jatropha oil starts on the initial planning of Jatropha Curcas cultivation program. Some of the companies are the partners of the government such as PT. Rajawali Putra Nusantara, Bahana Artha Ventura, PT. Rekayasa Industri, PT. Indosement Tunggal Prakarsa, Others are the partners of Bogor Agricultural University such as PT. Titan, and PT. AGB energy. There are also companies from Japan, Korea, and China.
In effort to produce biofuel, government and companies has been introducing jatropha crop to the farmer. The companies have been making an investment by planting jatropha in several areas such as Java, East Nusa Tenggara, and Papua in cooperation with local government and community. There are some models of cooperation between companies and the community. Initially, the companies asked to local governments to provide land to be used for seedling jatropha. The companies with local government organized the farmer to provided land for planting jatropha on private land or on government land. The jatropha seed was supplied by company but not for free, farmers had to buy and then received technical assistance in planting the jatropha. Companies promised to provided subsidies and credit to the farmer who want to plant the jatropha. In other side, the companies informed that jatropha crop is a simple plantation by low maintenance, low input, suitable for marginal land without fertilizer, and profitable because of the high price of its seed. Moreover, the companies promised to buy jatropha fruits in high price.
According to this information, farmers were very enthusiastic to participate on planting jatropha initially. They hoped to get credit or subsidies and economic benefit from cultivating jatropha crops. In some area, land that previously used for food crops was switching to jatropha crop because they hoped for reaching a high economic benefit. In some area, farmers were switching their land which is previously planted with corn and cassava. Farmers were not worried about where they will sell the jatropha kernel, because of the company’s promise.
After planting, the reality was not as they were expected. When jatropha produce fruits, farmers faced difficulties to sell the kernel. The company which previously were willing to storage and buy higher, unfortunately buy this production lower than its production cost. Moreover, the provided price was not stabil enough. In other case, the farmer could not sell the harvest because the company was closed. According to this condition, in some area, at Central Java jatropha crop cultivation was abandoned by the farmer. They were cutting down the crop and switching back the land for food crop cultivation (cassava and corn). Actually, cultivating the jatropha crop is not simple, because jatropha cultivation requires a lot of labor input in its management, starting from land clearing, planting, until harvesting. Jatropha seeds can not be harvested simultaneously. Farmers need more labor for harvesting and need additional manpower and labor costs.
Even though the government has formally established various policies to support biofuel production but the result is not yet seen. In current condition, the discoursement of biofuel production based on jatropha is beyond its fact. Media are often reporting about the establishment of biofuel companies or new locations for a big scale of jatropha plantations with the expectation of capacity production and manpower utilization. The news are optimistically impressed that the companies will run well to produce biofuel, but in fact do not match with the expectation. Often the company had close and leave the farmers when farmers began to produce jatropha seeds. Finally, the farmers do not know where to sell their product. Jatropha cultivation programmed by the companies show that they just sell the seeds to farmers while after growing, the companies run away.
This condition are experienced by the community at Ngaringan, Purwodadi, Central Java. Jatropha planting program in cooperation with government (the local government and the forest state company), community, and company is far from its expectation at the moment. The people who were formerly enthusiastic to plant Jatropha Curcas is apathetic now. The plants that has been planted are not well taken care of and just abandoned because of the imbalance in its seeds production cost and maintenance. The company which was previously expected to raise the people’s income is not running now. Finally, the plant is abandoned now; some farmers even cut it through and replace it with dry season crops.
Problems in Biofuel Production based on Jatropha Crop Cultivation
According to the condition that already been described, biofuel production based on jatropha crop is not well managed. Technically jatropha oil can be used for fuel as well as fossil fuel. But, in reality, producing jatropha oil in vast scale is not easy.
Currently, farmers still have orientation to plant food crops. The emergence of new types of commodity crops will cause social problems especially in its relation to knowledge production system and management of land and labor. Based on social-economic perspective, there are many problems in producing jatropha oil as biofuel; 1. How does the people’s readiness in producing biofuel; 2. How does manpower relationship between community and company in producing the biofuel?; 3. How does the social economy relationship built by community in the Jatropha oil production system?
Model of Land and Labor Management in Plantation
In Indonesia, the Jatropha oil for fuel source has been known in a long time period, especially during the Japanese occupation. As a new commodity crop, jatropha became a big discourse in 2005 but in current condition so far jatropha production has not produced any significant result. Before introducing jatropha, biofuel sources can be produced from sugar cane and Crude Palm Oil (CPO). Sugar cane produced ethanol, as byproduct of sugar.Palm oil was converted for biodiesel.. But both crops were cultivated as food crops rather than fuel crop. Recently, converting CPO to biodisel do not give economic benefit to companies because its price is higher than fossil fuel.
Meanwhile, jatropha, as an expected source of biofuel, is not strongly managed yet. The crop production system has not accommodated labor mobilization and land tenure system. Regarding this condition, the system is expected to adopt a sugar cane and palm oil as an established management. Several working patterns have been applied in the production system in sugar cane and palm oil to manage the relation between the labor, manufacturing company, and the land owner.
Sugar cane plantation systems in the Indonesia’s new order were known as Tebu Rakyat Intensifikasi-TRI (People's Sugar Cane Intensification) and Tebu Rakyar Bebas-TRB (People's Free Sugar Cane) . In the TRI system, the sugar cane company cooperated with the government to set up plantation pattern for the working fields belonged to the people and special village lands. Working fields belonged to the people were taking turn obliged to plant sugar cane with certain pattern. Sugar Cane Company provided incentive in the form of loan to farmers for the field processing, started from storaging into harvesting. The farmers were categorized into several groups based on the planting location block. The sugar cane produced was bought by the company. The loan taken by the farmers would be calculated on the harvesting time. Farmers could not refuse to plant the sugar cane in this system due to the authoritarian of a new Order regime. As the reformation of this order, this model was not longer applied in Indonesia. Facts show that there were a lot of funds corruptions in this system which was used to fund the production itself. Farmers lost out during harvesting due to the imbalance result compared with other plants which was caused by the factory in transparency in counting harvested sugar cane and its results after processing.
In TRB system, the farmers were independently planting sugar cane in their field and depositing the products to the factory to be processed. In this system, the factory was not interfering the process of planting conducted by the farmers. The farmers were free to plant sugar cane in their field and sell the products to the factory. Even so in the TRB system, since the company had full power to determine the price, farmers were often losing out due to low sugar cane price during harvesting so they could not cover up the production cost.
There are several working relation models for the manpower and company in palm oil plantation. First, the plantation is fully under the company. The company has several areas to plant and involves the manpower in the production system starting from field cleaning, planting, maintaining, harvesting, and processing. With this system, the manpower will get fees according to the status which is classified as full time, part time, and daily. Manpower does not assure any risks of losing that may happen.
Second, it is with the system of Nucleus Estate Smallholder or known as Perkebunan Inti Rakyat. In this system, there is contract farming which forms close relation between the company as the nucleus and manpower as the plasma. The nucleus obliges to provide the field, plant, input and production tools, technical guidance, and credit access, obliges to build physical facilities and accommodate the products. The plasma which is consisted of manpower/common people has certain requirements. The plasma obliges to process and maintain the plantation as well as deposit the products to the nucleus/factory. In several cases, the company can not maintain stable price so that it is the farmers who lose out.
Third, the manpower processes and maintains their fields independently and then sells the products to the company/factory with free plantation system. They assure all production costs and losing risks that may happen, especially due to the unstable market price.
Based on the relation patterns of production system to the available commodity, thus, the Jatropha Curcas commodity as the source of biofuel will lead to various social consequences. Therefore, it is necessary to identify alternative manpower relations in the Jatropha biofuel production system.
Dari Lahan Sumber Pangan ke Sumber Energi; Telaah Awal terhadap Produksi Bioenergi di Indonesia
Gunawan
Kelangkaan sumber energi fosil mendorong berbagai upaya untuk menghasilkan sumber energi alternatif yang bersumber dari bahan-bahan energi terbarukan, khususnya dalam bentuk bioenergi. Jarak Pagar (Jatropha Curcas) disebut-sebut sebagai tanaman potensial untuk menjadi sumber bioenergi, karena tidak bersaing dengan sumber tanaman pangan seperti kelapa sawit untuk sumber biodisel, tebu, dan jagung, untuk sumber bahan etanol. Selain itu, tanaman jarak pagar juga dianggap sebagai tanaman yang minim perawatan dan dapat tumbuh pada lahan yang tidak subur.
Paper untuk INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP ON AGRARIAN TRANSITION IN INDONESIA:
Pada kenyataannya hingga saat ini upaya untuk menanam tanaman jarak pagar sebagai sumber bioenergi tidak juga berjalan sesuai dengan harapan. Upaya penanaman jarak pagar di beberapa tempat tidak juga membuahkan hasil. Salah satu persoalan yang muncul adalah terjadinya pengalihan penggunaan lahan dari yang semula digunakan untuk tanaman pangan menjadi perkebunan jarak pagar. Dengan demikian, anggapan bahwa tanaman jarak pagar tidak bersaing dengan tanaman pangan perlu dipertanyakan ulang.
Pendahuluan
Peningkatan kebutuhan energi dunia yang bersumber dari bahan bakar fosil yang terjadi saat ini diakibatkan oleh meningkatnya populasi dan pertumbuhan industri. Berdasarkan hasil evaluasi yang dilakukan International Energy Agency (IEA), peningkatan permintaan minyak mentah global tahun 2010 mencapai 1,7% atau sekitar 1,4 juta barel per hari dibandingkan tahun 2009. Peningkatan konsumsi minyak sebagai sumber energi memicu terjadinya krisis energi karena semakin berkurangnya cadangan sumber energi fosil yang tersedia. Harga minyak dunia menjadi sangat dinamis. Pada tahun 2010, harga minyak mentah dunia akan berada pada kisaran 70 USD per barel dan akan mencapai 85 USD per barel pada triwulan ke IV. Pada bulan Mei harga minyak dunia berada pada posisi 77.02 USD per barel .
Menipisnya cadangan sumber energi fosil dan meningkatnya dampak negatif atas kelestarian lingkungan mendorong upaya-upaya untuk mencari sumber-sumber energi alternatif dari bahan yang terbarukan dan ramah lingkungan. Sumber energi yang mulai dikembangkan adalah penggunaan berbagai produk pertanian sebagai sumber bioenergi. Bioenergi adalah sumber energi yang diproses dari bahan-bahan organik berupa tumbuhan/hewan. Beberapa komoditas pertanian yang dapat dikembangkan sebagai sumber bioenergi adalah, jagung, sorgum, sagu, ubi kayu, kelapa, kelapa sawit, tebu, dan jarak pagar. Kelapa sawit dan jarak pagar dapat menjadi sumber produksi biodiesel, sedangkan jenis komoditi lainnya menjadi sumber etanol.
Dari Sumber Pangan ke Sumber Energi
Salah satu perdebatan yang muncul dalam pemanfaatan komoditi pertanian sebagai sumber bioenergi adalah terjadinya persaingan beberapa jenis hasil pertanian sebagai sumber bahan pangan dengan sumber bahan bakar. Penggunaan beberapa komoditi pertanian sebagai bahan bakar, seperti jagung dan ketela, diindikasi menjadi pemicu naiknya harga komoditi tersebut sehingga dapat mengancam ketersediaan bahan makanan. Hal ini dikhawatirkan akan menimbulkan terjadinya krisis pangan.
Produksi bioenergi yang sudah lama dilakukan di Indonesia adalah etanol dari bahan baku tebu. Produksi etanol dari tanaman tebu tidak menimbulkan persaingan terhadap kebutuhan pangan (produksi gula) karena etanol yang dihasilkan adalah produk sampingan dari gula yang dihasilkan. Namun penanaman tebu sebagai sumber etanol tidak berkembang karena permintaan pasar terhadap etanol yang tidak setinggi minyak solar dan hanya menjadi produk sampingan saja.
Sumber tanaman lain yang berpotensi untuk diolah menjadi sumber energi adalah minyak sawit. Produksi minyak sawit di Indonesia dihasilkan melalui sistem produksi perkebunan yang cukup mapan melalui beberapa model. Di antaranya adalah model perkebunaan milik perusahaan dan model perkebunan inti rakyat. Meskipun minyak sawit dapat diolah menjadi sumber biodisel namun hingga saat ini minyak sawit lebih banyak digunakan sebagai sumber minyak goreng. Untuk mengolah minyak sawit menjadi biodiesel dibutuhkan biaya tinggi sehingga produksi biodiesel yang dihasilkan harganya lebih tinggi dari harga solar. Dengan kondisi harga yang seperti itu tentunya tidak menarik minat pengusaha untuk memproduksi minyak sawit menjadi biodisel. Pada sisi lain, jika pengolahan minyak sawit menjadi biodisel lebih menguntungkan maka akan mengancam ketersediaan minyak goreng. Pengembangan perkebunan kelapa sawit juga sangat ekspansif terhadap lahan sehingga terjadi konversi hutan tropis menjadi areal perkebunan kelapa sawit. Kondisi ini secara ekologis jelas tidak ramah lingkungan. Dampak sosial lain yang sering terjadi dari pengembangan kelapa sawit adalah adanya pengambilalihan lahan oleh perusahaan terhadap lahan-lahan yang diklaim sebagai lahan masyarakat setempat. Misalnya lahan-lahan yang diklaim sebagai milik adat secara komunal pada masyarakat Dayak di Kalimantan.
Jenis tanaman lain yang dianggap berpotensi untuk dikembangkan menjadi sumber energi adalah jarak pagar (Jatropha Caurcas Linn). Minyak jarak bersifat ramah lingkungan karena tidak mencemari air dan udara karena mudah terurai secara biologis. Minyak jarak tidak dapat dikonsumsi manusia sehingga tidak mengganggu penyediaan minyak konsumsi. Sifat tanamannya mudah beradaptasi, tidak menyerap unsur hara dan menguapkan air tanah, serta dapat tumbuh di lahan kering dan marginal.
Di Indonesia, pemanfaatan jarak pagar untuk bahan bakar sudah dikenal masyarakat sejak masa pendudukan Jepang. Pada masa itu, minyak jarak sudah digunakan untuk bahan bakar pesawat dan bijinya juga digunakan untuk penerangan rumah pada malam hari. Namun berdasarkan penelusuran awal yang saya dapatkan, perbincangan tentang tanaman jarak pagar sebagai sumber bioenergi baru mulai ramai pada tahun 2005. Berbagai kajian dilakukan untuk menjajagi kemungkinan produksi minyak jarak sebagai sumber bahan bakar. Hal itu didorong oleh kenaikan harga minyak di pasar dunia pada tahun 2005.
Di Indonesia, upaya memproduksi energi alternatif dari minyak jarak (Jatropha oil) tidak hanya ditujukan untuk mengurangi ketergantungan terhadap energi fosil, tetapi juga menjadi upaya untuk menanggulangi kemiskinan. Pada bulan Oktober 2005 berlangsung deklarasi gerakan nasional penanggulangan kemiskinan dan krisis BBM melalui penanam jarak pagar sebagai bentuk Strategi Nasional Penanggulangan Kemiskinan (SNPK). Deklarasi tersebut ditandatangani oleh Menteri Koordinator Bidang Kesejahteraan Rakyat, Menteri Perencanaan Pembangunan, Nasional/Kepala Bappenas, Menteri Sosial, Menteri dalam Negeri, Menteri Pertanian, Menteri Pekerjaan Umum, Menteri Negara Koperasi dan UKM, Menristek, dll. Pada tahun berikutnya, pemerintah menetapkan Instruksi Presiden RI No. 1 tahun 2006 tentang penyediaan dan pemanfaatan bahan bakar nabati bioenergi sebagai bahan bakar lain. Instruksi tersebut ditujukan kepada 13 kementrian , gubernur, dan bupati/walikota agar mengambil langkah-langkah untuk melaksanakan percepatan penyediaan dan pemanfaatan bahan bakar nabati (bioenergi) sebagai bahan bakar lain.
Bentuk lain upaya pemerintah untuk mendorong peningkatan produksi bioenergi adalah dengan mencanangkan program Desa Mandiri Energi (DME). Program tersebut dideklarasikan oleh Presiden Susilo Bambang Yudoyono pada Pebruari 2007 di Desa Tanjungharjo, Kecamatan Ngaringan, Kabupaten Purwodadi, Jawa Tengah, sekaligus meresmikan berdirinya pabrik Bioenergi PT ENHIL. Program Desa Mandiri Energi (DME) merupakan program yang bertujuan agar desa dapat memenuhi kebutuhan energinya sendiri untuk mengurangi ketergantungan terhadap Bahan Bakar Minyak (fosil fuel). Selain itu, program tersebut juga bertujuan untuk menyediakan kesempatan kerja dan mengurangi kemiskinan di desa-desa tertinggal.
Pemerintah berharap penanaman jarak pagar menjadi alternatif pemasok bahan baku bioenergi kedua setelah minyak sawit. Tidak hanya kapasitas produksinya tetapi juga kemampuanya dalam menyerap tenaga kerja dalam jumlah besar. Pada tahun 2009 ditargetkan 10 juta ha perkebunan jarak pagar akan dapat menyerap 100.000 tenaga terampil dan 10 juta tenaga non-terampil .
Meskipun secara formal pemerintah sudah menetapkan berbagai kebijakan untuk mendukung produksi bioenergi namun hasilnya belum tampak. Hingga kini pemerintah dan akademisi masih sibuk dengan penelitian-penelitian tentang kalkulasi nilai ekonomis produksi jarak pagar baik menyangkut hasil produksinya maupun jumlah tenaga kerja yang dapat diserap oleh sektor produksi minyak jarak. Desa Mandiri Energi berbasis bioenergi yang dicanangkan di wilayah Kecamatan Ngaringan, Purwodadi saat ini kondisinya tidak sesuai harapan. Masyarakat yang awalnya sangat antusias untuk menanam jarak pagar, kini menjadi apatis. Tanaman jarak pagar yang sudah ditanam saat ini tidak dirawat dan hanya dibiarkan saja karena biji jarak yang diproduksi harganya tidak sebanding dengan biaya perawatannya. Kehadiran perusahaan yang semula diharapkan dapat meningkatkan pendapatan masyarakat saat ini macet tidak berproduksi. Pada awalnya masyarakat menanam jarak pagar di lahan yang sebelumnya di tanami dengan jagung dan ketela. Namun setelah jarak pagar mulai tumbuh dan berbuah ternyata harga jualnya tidak sesuai dengan yang diharapkan. Perusahaan yang semula bersedia menampung hasil panen ternyata membeli biji jarak di bawah ongkos produksi sehingga tidak menguntungkan hasilnya bagi petani. Harga yang ditetapkan perusahaan tidak stabil. Saat ini tanaman jarak pagar semakin tidak terurus bahkan beberapa petani membabati tanaman jaraknya untuk kembali diganti dengan tanaman palawija.
Mimpi Indah Jarak Pagar
Jarak pagar dikenalkan kepada masyarakat oleh berbagai pihak (pemerintah dan akademisi) sebagai sumber energi alternatif yang ramah lingkungan, tidak bersaing dengan tanaman pangan karena minyak jarak tidak dapat dikonsumsi manusia, dapat tumbuh pada lahan dengan tingkat kesuburan dan curah hujan rendah, minim perawatan, dan hasilnya dapat memberikan keuntungan ekonomis yang tinggi. Program penanaman jarak pagar tidak hanya bertujuan untuk mendapatkan sumber energi alternatif tetapi juga menjadi upaya untuk mengurangi kamiskinan. Karena tanaman ini dapat tumbuh di lahan yang kurang subur. Umumnya lahan-lahan tersebut berada pada masyarakat yang tingkat ekonominya rendah. Program penanaman jarak pagar diharapkan menjadi sumber pendapatan bagi masyarakat yang tinggal di daerah dengan tingkat kesuburan tanah rendah. Tentu saja hal ini disambut gembira oleh masyarakat. Mereka sangat antusias dengan program penanaman jarak pagar karena menjadi harapan baru bagi peningkatan pendapatan dan kesejahteraan.
Di berbagai wilayah di Indonesia mulai diidentifikasi lahan-lahan yang memiliki kategori sebagai lahan dengan tingkat kesuburan rendah. Lahan-lahan inilah yang dijadikan target untuk perkebunan jarak pagar. Berdasarkan catatan Puslitbangbun, pada tahun 2006 terdapat 14,2 juta ha lahan yang sesuai dengan kriteria untuk pengembangan jarak pagar. Lahan tersebut adalah lahan yang dikategorikan sebagai lahan yang tidak produktif bagi tanaman petanian khususnya padi dan palawija. Terdapat beberapa istilah yang digunakan dalam kategori lahan dengan tingkat kesuburan rendah, yaitu lahan marginal, lahan kritis, dan lahan tidur. Lahan marginal adalah lahan yang tidak produktif dengan tingkat keasaman tinggi, termasuk di dalamnya adalah rawa, lahan gambut, dan lahan kering seperti di wilayah timur. Lahan kritis adalah lahan yang mengalami degradasi ekologi, misalnya akibat penggundulan hutan atau lahan bekas tambang mineral. Sedangkan lahan tidur adalah lahan yang tidak dimanfaatkan untuk petanian oleh masyarakat setempat.
Konsepsi tentang lahan marginal yang menjadi lahan potensial untuk pengembangan jarak pagar rupanya perlu dilihat lebih hati-hati. Beberapa kasus yang terjadi mengindikasikan bahwa pengembangan jarak pagar tidak sepenuhnya dilakukan pada lahan-lahan dengan tingkat kesuburan rendah. Hal ini dapat ditemui pada program pengembangan jarak pagar yang terjadi terdapat di Desa Ngaringan Purwodadi, Jawa Tengah dan Desa Kanigoro, Saptosari, Gunungkidul. Di desa Ngaringan, pengembangan tanaman jarak pagar disambut antusias oleh penduduk setempat. Lahan yang semula semula ditanami jagung dan ketela digantikan dengan tanaman jarak pagar karena mengarapkan hasil yang lebih baik. Lain halnya dengan yang terjadi di Gunungkidul. Lahan yang digunakan untuk menanam jarak pagar pada dasarnya masih dapat ditanami dengan tanaman jagung.
Penutup
Pengembangan bioenergi bersumber tanaman jarak pagar saat ini dianggap dapat menjadi alternatif energi pengganti bahan bakar fosil. Selain bersifat ramah lingkungan, juga dianggap tidak bersaing dengan produksi bahan makanan. Jarak pagar tidak termasuk dalam tanaman konsumsi dan dapat ditanam pada lahan yang memiliki tingkat kesuburan rendah, tidak produktif, dan lahan yang tidak dapat digunakan untuk tanaman pangan. Namun pada prakteknya, penggunaan lahan yang dikonsepkan sebagai lahan marginal dan tidak produktif harus dilihat dengan lebih hati-hati. Karena bila tanaman jarak pagar dapat memberikan keuntungan ekonomis, tidak mustahil masyarakat akan beralih menanam jarak pagar dari pada menanam padi dan palawija. Setidaknya apa yang dilakukan oleh petani di Ngaringan, Porwodadi menjadi indikasi awal akan hal ini. Meskipun akhirnya mereka kembali menanam jagung dan ketela karena hasil tanaman jarak pagar tidak sesuai dengan harapan. Konsepsi tentang lahan marginal tidak dapat diukur dari tingkat produktifitasnya, tetapi perlu juga dilihat aspek kulturalnya terkait dengan bagaimana sistem manajemen lahan pada masyarakat. Apa yang terjadi di Sumba menunjukkan bahwa hamparan lahan yang tidak dimanfaatkan untuk petanian ternyata menjadi arena penggembalaan ternak. Apabila secara serampangan lahan-lahan tesebut digunakan untuk pengembangan jarak pagar, tentunya akan menimbulkan persoalan sosial bagi masyarakat setempat.
Lahan milik masyarakat yang ditanami tanaman pangan
Lokasi: Gunungkidul Lahan milik Sultan (Sultan Ground) yang disewa perusahaan untuk ditanami jarak pagar
Lokasi: Gunungkidul
Lahan yang tidak dimanfaatkan untuk pertanian menjadi lahan penggembalaan
Lokasi: Sumba, NTT
Sumber bacaan
Anonim, Agrofuels and the Myth of the Marginal Lands
Prastowo, Bambang. Potensi Sektor Pertanian sebagai Penghasil Pengguna Energi Terbarukan, Perspektif Vol. 6 No. 2 / Desember 2007. Hal 84 – 92
Notohadiprawiro, Tejoyuwono. Lahan Kritis dan Bincangan Pelestarian Lingkungan Hidup. Makalah Seminar Nasional Penanganan Lahan Kritis di Indonesia tanggal 7-8 November 1996. INAGRO (PT. Intidaya Agrolestari), Desa Cibeuteung Udik, Parung, Bogor .
Prasetyo, dkk. Pertumbuhan dan Hasil Jarak Pagar pada Berbagai Pola Tanam di Lahan Marginal. Jurnal Ilmu-Ilmu Pertanian Indonesia. Edisi Khusus, No. 3 2007, Hlm. 409 – 417
Sugiyono, Agus. Pemanfaatan Bioenergi dalam Penyediaan Energi Nasional Jangka Pandang. Makalah Seminar Teknologi untuk Negeri, 2005.
Sugrue, Annie. Bioenergy Production on Marginal and Degraded Land:
the Potential Social Impacts. Draft paper of The Joint International Workshop on High Nature Value Criteria and Potential for Sustainable Use of Degraded Land. Paris June 30th and July 1st, 2008.
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